The Eye of the Other

The Eye of the Other and the Independent Self of the Japanese

Timothy R.S. Leuers [Takemoto]¹& Naoko Sonoda²

One of the things that cultural psychologists, such as Kitayama (1998), argue most convincingly is the interdependence of culture and self. Similarly, in my presentation to this conference in '97, I demonstrated the extent to which supposedly independent North Americans are very much dependent upon their culture, upon its socio-cultural norms. But, this does not mean that the notion of the independent self is obsolete or that there is no difference between it and the interdependent self. The difference is as follows. A collectivist sees his or herself in social contexts, in relationships with others: at work, with friends, in the home. Someone with an independent self on the other hand, sees him or herself in a generalised social context, a relationship with the other. The independent self is in relation to a "generalised other" (Mead, 1962), an other so generalised that it is no longer this or that social group, this or that other person, but an unconscious, integral part of the process that we call self.

The question as to whether the Japanese have an independent self or not becomes, therefore, a question as to whether the Japanese have modelled and internalised a generalised other. I will present experimental evidence for the assertion that the Japanese do possess such an other but, unlike in the West, this other is conceived in the visual domain. The experimental evidence is of two types:

1) A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Twenty Photographs Tests (TPT). American and Japanese subjects were told to take 20 photographs which express "who you are". The photographs were analysed by peers, other country subjects and the experimenters. It was found that Japanese present themselves significantly more positively and they take more photographs showing themselves. The Japanese TPT, like the American TST, can be interpreted as self-enhancing. I argue that can be explained by the hypothesis that Japanese feel obliged to perform image management before an ever-present internalised gaze. (With Naoko Sonoda and thanks to Jill Hirschenfang, Beth Morling and the Japanese Education Department for the grant that made this research possible.)

2) A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Moral Behaviour in the Presence of a Mirror. American and Japanese subjects were asked to perform an assistance task with or without facing a large mirror. As predicted by Duval and Wicklund (1972), Americans become pro-social in the presence of the mirror. The Japanese did not. I argue that the mirror encourages Americans, but not Japanese, to feel the gaze of the other because the Japanese have already internalised the gaze of the other, like a mirror imbedded in their mind. (With Naoko Sonoda, Wayne Roffer and Beth Morling)

We identify with a self, reflected in the mind of others. The greater the extent that we simulate the other, society, and internalise it, the greater the extent to which we can be independent of particular others. The Japanese, like Westerners, possess this ability too, except in a different mode.

^{1 Institute of
Foreign Languages, Kurume University, 1635 Mii-Machi, Kurume-shi, Japan}

^{2 Department of Letters, Kurume University,
1635 Mii-Machi, Kurume-shi, Japan}